Ornamental plants of India

     Ornamental plants are cultivated for their aesthetic appeal and decorative purposes in gardens, landscapes, indoor spaces, and public areas. These plants contribute to the beauty and ambiance of environments, enhance property values, and provide numerous economic benefits.

     India, with its rich biodiversity and diverse climates, is home to a plethora of ornamental plants that captivate with their beauty, fragrance, and cultural significance. Ornamental plants play a vital role in enhancing landscapes, gardens, and urban green spaces, while also contributing to cultural traditions, religious ceremonies, and medicinal practices. This note hilight the ornamental plants of India, exploring their diversity, uses, and significance.

Some most commonly occurring ornamental plants are given below-

Flowering Trees:

Gulmohar (Delonix regia): Known for its fiery red-orange blossoms, the Gulmohar graces Indian landscapes with its stunning floral display during the summer months.

Jacaranda (Jacaranda mimosifolia): The Jacaranda tree paints the Indian sky with hues of purple when it blooms, creating a magical atmosphere in gardens and parks.

Tabebuia (Tabebuia spp.): Tabebuia trees, also known as trumpet trees, adorn Indian streets with their clusters of vibrant yellow, pink, or white flowers, signaling the arrival of spring.

Fragrant Flowers:

Jasmine (Jasminum spp.): Jasmine, revered for its sweet fragrance, is an integral part of Indian culture, used in religious rituals, weddings, and perfumes.

Rajnigandha (Polianthes tuberosa): The fragrant tuberose, or Rajnigandha, delights the senses with its intoxicating aroma, often worn as floral adornments or used in garlands.

Raat Ki Rani (Cestrum nocturnum): The Night Blooming Jasmine, with its intensely sweet fragrance, fills the night air with its perfume, making it a favorite in Indian gardens.

Foliage Plants:

Croton (Codiaeum variegatum): Croton plants are prized for their colorful, variegated leaves, adding a vibrant touch to gardens and indoor spaces.

Coleus (Plectranthus scutellarioides): Coleus plants display a kaleidoscope of colors in their foliage, ranging from vibrant greens to deep purples and reds, making them popular ornamentals.

Caladium (Caladium bicolor): Caladiums, with their large, heart-shaped leaves splashed with shades of pink, red, and green, lend a tropical flair to gardens and landscapes.

Cacti and Succulents:

Crown of Thorns (Euphorbia milii): This succulent shrub, adorned with spiky stems and clusters of colorful flowers, thrives in India's arid regions, adding beauty to dry landscapes.

Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis): Aloe Vera, prized for its medicinal properties, also serves as an ornamental plant, with its fleshy leaves and striking flower spikes.

Ornamental Grasses:

Pampas Grass (Cortaderia selloana): Pampas Grass, with its feathery plumes towering above its foliage, adds drama and

 Economic importance and uses of ornamental plants:

 Landscaping and Garden Design:

        Ornamental plants are essential for landscaping projects, where they are used to create visually appealing outdoor spaces, parks, and gardens.

        Landscape architects and designers utilize ornamental plants to achieve various design objectives, such as adding color, texture, and focal points to landscapes.

Horticulture Industry:

       The cultivation, production, and sale of ornamental plants form a significant sector of the horticulture industry.

        Nurseries and garden centers propagate and sell a wide range of ornamental plants to homeowners, landscapers, municipalities, and commercial clients.

Gardening and Home Improvement:

        Homeowners purchase ornamental plants for gardening and landscaping projects to beautify their properties and enhance curb appeal.

        Ornamental plants are used in container gardening, flower beds, borders, and hanging baskets to create inviting outdoor spaces.

Cut Flower Industry:

            Many ornamental plants are grown for their flowers, which are harvested and sold as cut flowers for floral arrangements, bouquets, and decorations.

        Commercial flower farms cultivate ornamental plants such as roses, lilies, carnations, and chrysanthemums for the cut flower market, contributing to the floral industry's economic growth.

Indoor Decoration and Greenery:

            Ornamental plants are widely used for indoor decoration, where they improve indoor air quality, reduce stress, and create a soothing and inviting atmosphere.

        Interior designers incorporate indoor plants into office spaces, homes, hotels, restaurants, and public buildings to add a touch of nature and enhance occupants' well-being.

Tourism and Recreation:

        Public gardens, botanical parks, and arboretums attract tourists and visitors with their diverse collections of ornamental plants and landscaped grounds.

        Botanical gardens serve as educational and recreational venues, hosting events, tours, workshops, and exhibitions related to ornamental horticulture and plant diversity.

Green Infrastructure and Urban Planning:

        Ornamental plants play a role in green infrastructure projects, where they contribute to urban greening, stormwater management, and climate resilience.

        Street trees, pocket parks, green roofs, and urban forests incorporate ornamental plants to enhance urban aesthetics, mitigate heat islands, and improve overall quality of life in cities.

Export and International Trade:

        Countries with favorable climates and expertise in ornamental horticulture export a variety of plants and flowers to international markets.

Ornamental plant exports contribute to foreign exchange earnings, economic growth, and job creation in exporting countries, supporting livelihoods in rural areas.

In summary, ornamental plants have significant economic importance and a wide range of uses across various sectors, including landscaping, horticulture, gardening, cut flower production, indoor decoration, tourism, urban planning, and international trade. Their aesthetic appeal, environmental benefits, and commercial value make ornamental plants indispensable contributors to the economy and society.

Avenue trees

             Avenue trees, also known as street trees or roadside trees, are trees planted along roads, streets, or avenues to provide shade, enhance aesthetics, improve air quality, and contribute to urban biodiversity. These trees line both sides of the road, forming a green canopy that offers numerous benefits to urban environments and the people who inhabit them.

        Assam, known for its lush greenery and diverse flora, is home to several tree species that are commonly grown as avenue trees. These trees not only enhance the beauty of urban and rural landscapes but also provide numerous benefits to the local environment and communities.

Some Examples of Avenue Trees:

Rain Tree (Albizia saman): The Rain Tree, also known as the "Samanea saman," is a common avenue tree in Assam. It is prized for its wide, spreading canopy, which provides excellent shade and shelter. The tree's fern-like foliage and pinkish-white flowers add to its ornamental value.

Indian Rubber Tree (Ficus elastica): The Indian Rubber Tree, locally known as "Dikorai Gacha," is a popular avenue tree in Assam. It is valued for its large, glossy leaves and robust growth habit. The tree's latex sap has commercial value, and it is often planted along roadsides and in public parks.

Gulmohar (Delonix regia): The Gulmohar, also called the "Krishnachura" in Assam, is known for its striking red-orange flowers that bloom during the summer months. It is a favorite avenue tree due to its vibrant blooms, which add a splash of color to the landscape.

Indian Rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo): The Indian Rosewood, locally known as "Simolu," is commonly planted along roadsides and in urban areas of Assam. It is valued for its durable wood, which is used in furniture making and construction. The tree's dense foliage provides shade and habitat for birds.

Indian Laburnum (Cassia fistula): The Indian Laburnum, also known as the "Amaltas" or "Sonaru," is appreciated for its cascading clusters of yellow flowers that bloom profusely in spring. It is often planted as an ornamental tree along roadsides and in public gardens.

Copper Pod (Peltophorum pterocarpum): The Copper Pod, locally called "Radha Chura," is a flowering tree native to Assam. It is prized for its bright yellow flowers and copper-colored seed pods. The tree is often planted along avenues and in parks for its aesthetic appeal.

Saraca Indica (Saraca asoca): The Saraca Indica, commonly known as the "Ashoka tree," is revered for its fragrant, bright orange-yellow flowers. It is considered sacred in Indian culture and is often planted near temples and along roadsides for its ornamental value.

Maple (Acer spp.): Maple trees are popular choices for avenue planting due to their vibrant foliage, fast growth, and tolerance to urban conditions. Species such as the Red Maple (Acer rubrum) and Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) are commonly planted for their brilliant autumn colors and adaptability to various soil types.

Oak (Quercus spp.): Oaks are iconic trees known for their longevity, strength, and majestic appearance. Species like the Red Oak (Quercus rubra) and White Oak (Quercus alba) are valued as avenue trees for their large canopy, wildlife habitat provision, and drought tolerance.

London Plane (Platanus acerifolia): The London Plane is a hybrid tree derived from the American Sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) and Oriental Plane (Platanus orientalis). It is widely planted in urban areas for its tolerance to pollution, fast growth, and attractive mottled bark.

Crape Myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica): Crape Myrtle trees are prized for their showy summer blooms, vibrant foliage, and compact size, making them suitable for avenue planting in smaller urban spaces. They offer ornamental value while attracting pollinators such as bees and butterflies.

Japanese Zelkova (Zelkova serrata): Japanese Zelkova is valued for its graceful, vase-shaped canopy, attractive bark, and tolerance to urban conditions. It provides shade, visual interest, and habitat for birds while requiring minimal maintenance.

These are just a few examples of the many avenue trees, contributing to rich biodiversity and enhancing its urban and rural landscapes. Each of these trees not only beautifies the surroundings but also provides valuable ecosystem services such as shade, air purification, and habitat for wildlife.

Importance of Avenue Trees:

Shade and Cooling: Avenue trees provide shade, reducing the urban heat island effect and lowering ambient temperatures during hot summer months. This helps mitigate heat-related illnesses, enhance outdoor comfort, and reduce energy consumption for cooling buildings.

Air Quality Improvement: Avenue trees absorb air pollutants such as carbon dioxide, ozone, and particulate matter, improving air quality and human health. Through photosynthesis, trees release oxygen, contributing to cleaner and fresher urban environments.

Stormwater Management: Avenue trees intercept rainfall, reduce surface runoff, and mitigate flooding by absorbing water through their roots and canopy. They help prevent soil erosion, filter pollutants, and recharge groundwater, contributing to sustainable urban water management.

Wildlife Habitat: Avenue trees provide habitat and food sources for birds, insects, and other wildlife, increasing urban biodiversity and ecological resilience. They create green corridors that support wildlife movement and gene flow in fragmented urban landscapes.

Aesthetic Enhancement: Avenue trees enhance the visual appeal of urban streetscapes, creating green spaces that soften the built environment and promote a sense of well-being. Their seasonal changes in foliage, flowers, and fruits add color and diversity to urban landscapes throughout the year.

Property Value: Avenue trees increase property values and enhance the desirability of neighborhoods by creating attractive, walkable streetscapes. They contribute to a sense of place, community identity, and social cohesion, fostering pride and stewardship among residents.

Importance of Forestry: Utilization and Commercial Aspects

        Forestry, the science and practice of managing forests and woodlands, plays a multifaceted role in sustaining ecosystems, supporting livelihoods, and driving economic development. This note delves into the importance of forestry, examining its utilization and commercial aspects, and highlighting its significance for environmental conservation and socio-economic prosperity.

Ecosystem Services:

        Forests provide a wide array of ecosystem services essential for planetary health and human well-being. They regulate the climate by sequestering carbon dioxide, stabilizing soils, and moderating temperatures. Forests also play a crucial role in water cycle regulation, watershed protection, and biodiversity conservation, harboring diverse flora and fauna. Additionally, forests contribute to air purification, oxygen production, and cultural heritage preservation. Recognizing the ecological value of forests is fundamental for promoting sustainable forestry practices that safeguard ecosystem services for present and future generations.

Timber and Non-timber Forest Products (NTFPs):

        Forestry encompasses the sustainable management of timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), which serve as valuable resources for various industries and communities. Timber harvested from forests is used in construction, furniture manufacturing, paper production, and renewable energy generation. Non-timber forest products, including medicinal plants, fruits, nuts, resins, and fibers, provide livelihoods for millions of people worldwide and contribute to local economies. Balancing the extraction of timber and NTFPs with conservation priorities is essential for maintaining forest ecosystems' integrity and resilience.

Commercial Forestry Practices:

        Commercial forestry involves the cultivation, harvesting, and processing of timber for profit. Sustainable forest management practices, such as selective logging, reforestation, and agroforestry, aim to maximize timber yields while minimizing environmental impacts. Certification schemes, such as Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) and Programme for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC), ensure that timber products originate from responsibly managed forests, meeting social, environmental, and economic criteria. Commercial forestry operations contribute to job creation, revenue generation, and rural development, particularly in forest-dependent communities.

Value-added Products and Industries:

        Forestry extends beyond timber production to encompass value-added products and industries that utilize wood and forest resources. Wood processing industries, including sawmilling, pulp and paper manufacturing, and wood-based panel production, transform raw timber into finished products for domestic and international markets. Additionally, emerging sectors such as bioenergy, biomaterials, and eco-tourism leverage forest resources to create sustainable alternatives to fossil fuels, plastics, and conventional tourism. Promoting innovation, investment, and market diversification within forest-based industries enhances their competitiveness and sustainability.

Carbon Markets and Climate Finance:

        Forests play a pivotal role in climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts through carbon sequestration and forest conservation initiatives. Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD+), carbon offset projects, and payments for ecosystem services (PES) mechanisms incentivize forest conservation and restoration activities. Carbon markets facilitate the trading of carbon credits generated from forest carbon stocks, providing financial incentives for sustainable forestry practices and conservation projects. Mobilizing climate finance for forest-based mitigation and adaptation measures strengthens the resilience of forest ecosystems and contributes to global climate goals.

The importance of forestry transcends its economic value, encompassing ecological, social, and cultural dimensions. Sustainable forestry practices, utilization of timber and non-timber forest products, commercial forestry operations, value-added industries, and climate finance mechanisms are integral components of forest management and conservation strategies. Embracing the holistic approach to forestry that balances environmental stewardship with socio-economic development is essential for realizing forests' full potential as drivers of sustainable development and guardians of biodiversity.

Sustainable development

          In the pursuit of global development, the conservation of biodiversity stands as a fundamental pillar of sustainability. Sustainable development aims to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Biodiversity conservation plays a central role in achieving this goal by preserving the intricate web of life upon which human well-being depends. This note examines the synergies between sustainable development and biodiversity conservation and outlines strategies for harmonizing these interconnected objectives.

Ecosystem Services:

    Biodiversity underpins the provision of ecosystem services essential for human survival and prosperity, including clean air and water, fertile soils, pollination, climate regulation, and disease control. Recognizing the economic, social, and cultural value of these services is crucial for integrating biodiversity conservation into sustainable development agendas. By valuing and conserving biodiversity-rich ecosystems, sustainable development initiatives can enhance resilience, mitigate risks, and unlock opportunities for inclusive growth and poverty alleviation.

Climate Change Mitigation and Adaptation:

    Biodiversity conservation plays a vital role in climate change mitigation and adaptation efforts. Healthy ecosystems, such as forests, wetlands, and mangroves, sequester carbon dioxide, regulate temperatures, and buffer communities against natural disasters. Integrating biodiversity conservation into climate action strategies, such as REDD+ (Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation), promotes synergies between carbon sequestration, biodiversity protection, and sustainable livelihoods. By conserving biodiversity-rich habitats and promoting ecosystem-based approaches to climate resilience, sustainable development goals can be advanced while safeguarding biodiversity.

Sustainable Land Use and Resource Management:

        Balancing competing demands for land and natural resources is essential for achieving sustainable development without compromising biodiversity conservation. Adopting integrated land-use planning approaches that prioritize biodiversity conservation, sustainable agriculture, forestry, fisheries, and urban development can reconcile economic development with environmental protection. Implementing sustainable land management practices, such as agroforestry, sustainable intensification, and ecosystem restoration, enhances productivity, resilience, and biodiversity conservation outcomes. By promoting multi-stakeholder collaboration, adaptive governance, and landscape-scale conservation initiatives, sustainable development goals can be achieved while safeguarding critical habitats and species.

Inclusive and Equitable Development:

     Ensuring that development benefits are equitably distributed among all segments of society is essential for achieving sustainable outcomes. Biodiversity conservation plays a crucial role in promoting social inclusion, cultural diversity, and environmental justice. Integrating indigenous knowledge, traditional practices, and community-based approaches into sustainable development planning empowers local communities, strengthens social cohesion, and enhances the resilience of socio-ecological systems. By promoting inclusive governance, participatory decision-making, and equitable access to resources, sustainable development initiatives can address root causes of biodiversity loss while promoting human well-being and social justice.

Education and Capacity Building:

    Building awareness, knowledge, and capacity for biodiversity conservation is essential for mainstreaming sustainability into development policies and practices. Investing in environmental education, research, and training programs equips individuals, communities, and institutions with the skills, tools, and incentives needed to support biodiversity conservation and sustainable development goals. By fostering a culture of stewardship, innovation, and lifelong learning, sustainable development agendas can be advanced through informed decision-making, responsible consumption, and active citizenship.

Sustainable development with biodiversity conservation is essential for achieving a prosperous, equitable, and resilient future for humanity and the planet. By recognizing the intrinsic value of biodiversity, harnessing ecosystem services, addressing climate change, promoting sustainable land use, fostering inclusive development, and investing in education and capacity building, we can chart a course towards a more sustainable and biodiverse world. Embracing the interdependence of people and nature is key to unlocking the full potential of sustainable development while safeguarding the precious tapestry of life on Earth.

Biodiversity awareness programmes

         Biodiversity, the variety of life on Earth, is essential for the well-being of ecosystems and humanity alike. However, biodiversity loss due to human activities poses a significant threat to our planet's health. Biodiversity awareness programs play a crucial role in educating and engaging individuals and communities in conservation efforts. This note explores the importance of biodiversity awareness programs and their impact on fostering a culture of conservation.

Education and Outreach:

        Biodiversity awareness programs serve as educational platforms to inform the public about the importance of biodiversity, the threats it faces, and the actions needed to conserve it. These programs target various audiences, including students, educators, policymakers, and the general public, through workshops, seminars, exhibits, and online resources. By disseminating scientifically accurate information in accessible formats, awareness programs empower individuals to make informed decisions and take positive actions to protect biodiversity.

Behavorial Changes:

        Awareness programs aim to inspire behavioral change by raising awareness of the impact of human activities on biodiversity and promoting sustainable practices. By highlighting the linkages between everyday actions and their consequences for biodiversity, these programs encourage individuals to adopt eco-friendly behaviors such as reducing consumption, recycling, supporting local biodiversity-friendly products, and participating in conservation initiatives. Through targeted messaging and interactive activities, awareness programs motivate individuals to become proactive stewards of the environment.

Community Enablement:

        Biodiversity awareness programs foster community engagement by involving local stakeholders in conservation efforts. By collaborating with schools, community organizations, indigenous groups, and local governments, these programs create opportunities for dialogue, collaboration, and collective action towards biodiversity conservation. Community-based initiatives such as citizen science projects, habitat restoration activities, and eco-tourism ventures empower communities to contribute directly to biodiversity monitoring and conservation while fostering a sense of ownership and pride in local ecosystems.

Promoting Biodiversity Literacy:

        Biodiversity awareness programs promote biodiversity literacy by enhancing public understanding of the complex interactions between species, ecosystems, and human societies. Through hands-on experiences, nature walks, and interpretive materials, these programs facilitate experiential learning and foster a deeper appreciation for the beauty and value of biodiversity. By fostering a sense of wonder and curiosity about the natural world, biodiversity awareness programs inspire individuals to explore, learn, and connect with nature on a personal level.

Policy Advocacy:

    Awareness programs play a vital role in advocating for policies and initiatives that support biodiversity conservation at local, national, and global levels. By raising public awareness of environmental issues and mobilizing grassroots support, these programs create pressure for political action and policy change. Through advocacy campaigns, petitions, and lobbying efforts, awareness programs amplify the voices of concerned citizens and organizations, influencing decision-makers to prioritize biodiversity conservation in policy agendas and resource allocations.

Measuring Impact and Effectiveness: 

        Evaluating the impact and effectiveness of biodiversity awareness programs is essential for refining strategies and maximizing outcomes. Monitoring indicators such as changes in knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, and conservation actions can provide valuable insights into program effectiveness and identify areas for improvement. By conducting surveys, interviews, and follow-up assessments, awareness programs can assess their reach, relevance, and long-term impact on biodiversity conservation outcomes.

        Biodiversity awareness programs play a critical role in promoting understanding, appreciation, and action for biodiversity conservation. By engaging diverse audiences, fostering behavior change, empowering communities, promoting biodiversity literacy, advocating for policy change, and measuring impact, these programs contribute to building a more sustainable and resilient future for biodiversity and humanity alike. Embracing the power of awareness and education is key to inspiring a collective commitment to safeguarding the rich tapestry of life on Earth for generations to come.

Social Approaches to Conservation of Biodiversity

In recent years, the conservation of biodiversity has evolved beyond traditional ecological approaches to encompass a broader understanding of the intricate relationship between nature and society. Social approaches to biodiversity conservation recognize the fundamental role that human communities play in shaping and preserving the natural world. This note explores various dimensions of social approaches to conservation and highlights their significance in achieving sustainable outcomes.

Community Engagement and Participation:

        Empowering local communities is at the heart of social approaches to conservation. Engaging communities in decision-making processes fosters a sense of ownership and responsibility towards biodiversity conservation efforts. By involving indigenous peoples and local stakeholders, conservation initiatives can leverage traditional knowledge and practices that have sustained ecosystems for generations.

Cultural Preservation:

          Biodiversity conservation is inseparable from the preservation of cultural heritage. Many indigenous cultures are deeply intertwined with their natural surroundings, embodying a rich tapestry of traditional ecological knowledge and spiritual beliefs. Respecting and safeguarding cultural diversity not only strengthens conservation efforts but also contributes to the broader goal of cultural preservation.

Socio-Economic Development:

         Recognizing the linkages between conservation and socio-economic development is essential for achieving long-term sustainability. Socially inclusive conservation strategies prioritize the well-being of local communities by creating opportunities for livelihood diversification, sustainable resource management, and eco-tourism. By aligning conservation objectives with socio-economic incentives, these approaches promote synergies between human welfare and environmental protection.

Environmental Justice:

        Addressing environmental inequalities is integral to ensuring equitable outcomes in conservation efforts. Socially marginalized communities often bear the brunt of environmental degradation and are disproportionately excluded from decision-making processes. Social approaches to conservation advocate for environmental justice by promoting inclusive policies, empowering marginalized groups, and advocating for the rights of nature and indigenous peoples.

Education and Awareness:

        Building public awareness and environmental literacy are crucial components of social approaches to conservation. Education initiatives aimed at fostering a deeper understanding of biodiversity, ecosystem services, and sustainable lifestyles empower individuals to become stewards of the environment. By nurturing a culture of conservation from an early age, these efforts cultivate a sense of environmental responsibility that transcends generations.

Partnerships and Collaboration:

        Collaboration across sectors and stakeholders is essential for the success of social approaches to conservation. Partnerships between governments, NGOs, academia, and local communities facilitate knowledge exchange, resource mobilization, and collective action towards shared conservation goals. By fostering a collaborative ethos, these partnerships harness the collective wisdom and resources needed to address complex conservation challenges effectively.

Social approaches to conservation recognize that biodiversity conservation is as much about people as it is about nature. By integrating social, cultural, and economic dimensions into conservation strategies, these approaches hold the promise of creating more resilient and inclusive conservation outcomes that benefit both people and the planet. Embracing the interconnectedness of human societies and ecosystems is key to forging a sustainable future where biodiversity thrives alongside thriving communities.

Polyembryony

Polyembryony is a phenomenon where multiple embryos develop from a single fertilized egg or from the cells of the embryo sac in plants. This results in the production of multiple offspring that are genetically identical or closely related. Polyembryony occurs naturally in some plant species and can also be induced artificially through tissue culture techniques. It is particularly common in certain fruit crops like citrus, where it can be exploited for clonal propagation, ensuring uniformity and genetic stability in cultivated varieties.

Polyembryony can have various causes, depending on the plant species and the specific mechanisms involved. Some of the common causes include:

 Zygotic: 

In some cases, polyembryony arises from the fertilization of multiple egg cells within the embryo sac, resulting in the development of multiple zygotes. This can occur naturally in certain plant species, leading to the formation of genetically diverse offspring.

 Nucellar:

Polyembryony can also occur through the development of embryos from cells of the nucellus tissue surrounding the embryo sac, rather than from fertilized egg cells. This type of polyembryony is common in citrus and other plant families like Pinaceae (pines).

 Adventitious Embryo Formation:

 Certain environmental or hormonal factors can stimulate the formation of adventitious embryos from somatic cells of the ovule or ovary wall. This can result in the production of multiple embryos from a single seed, leading to polyembryony.

 Genetic Factors :

Polyembryony may have a genetic basis, with specific genes or genetic mutations influencing embryo development and the initiation of multiple embryos from a single fertilized egg or embryo sac.

Hybridization  :

Hybridization between different species or varieties can sometimes induce polyembryony, as seen in some interspecific crosses. The genetic interactions between parental genomes can lead to abnormal embryo development and the production of multiple embryos.

Pathological Conditions:

In some cases, stress, disease, or other pathological conditions may disrupt normal embryo development and lead to polyembryony as a response to the stressor.

    At conclusion we may say that Polyembryony can result from a combination of genetic, developmental, and environmental factors, and its occurrence varies among plant species and cultivars.

নোধোৱা আম খালে বিপদ হ'ব পাৰে

আমক ফলৰ ৰজা বুলি কোৱা হয়। বৰ্ষা কাল অহাৰ লগে লগে গছত আম দাল ভৰি ভৰি লগা হয়তো আপুনি দেখিছে। বিশেষকৈ অসমৰ গামাঞ্চলত এসময়ত দো খাই আম লগা আপুনি নিশ্চয় দেখা পাইছিল। কিন্তু আজি কালি সেই ছবি বিৰল হৈ পৰিছে। দুপৰীয়া পথাৰত কাম বন কৰি আহি ঘৰত বন্ধু-বান্ধৱীৰ সৈতে বহি আম খাই মজা লোৱা বৰ্তমান বহুতৰে নাথাকিলেও আমাৰ কিন্তু সেই অভিজ্ঞতা ভালদৰে আছে। কিন্তু দিন বাগৰি অহাৰ লগে লগে গাৱঁবোৰত আজি কালি সেই পৰিৱেশ নোহোৱা হৈ পৰিছে। আম গছবোৰ কমি আহিছে। পোকৰ আক্ৰমণত কলিতে সৰি পৰা নতুবা বিভিন্ন পৰিৱেশজনিত কাৰণত আম নলগা পৰিৱেশ এটাৰ সৃষ্টি হোৱা যেন অনুভৱ হৈছে। 

তথাপিও জানো আমি আম নোখোৱাকৈ আছো! পৰাসকলে বজাৰৰ পৰা আম আনি এই বৰ্ষা ঋতুত দকচি যে খায় সেইটো খাটাং। খাবই লাগিব বা খালে ভাল। কিয়নো আমৰ পৰা আমাৰ দেহত বহুতো প্ৰয়োজনীয় উপাদান পোৱা যায় যি আমাৰ দেহত দৰকাৰ হোৱা পুষ্টি যোগান ধৰে। ইয়াৰ ভিতৰত ভিটামিন "এ"  আৰু " চি"। এই উপাদান দুবিধে আমাৰ দেহৰ প্ৰতিৰোধ ক্ষমতা সবল কৰাৰ লগতে সু-স্বাস্থ্য আৰু ভাল ছালৰ গঠনত গুৰু ভুমিকা লয়। তাৰোপৰি আমে খাদ্যত আঁহ যোগান ধৰে, হজম শক্তি বঢ়ায় আৰু শৰীৰৰ ওজন নিয়ন্ত্ৰণ কৰাত সহায় কৰে। আমত বিটা-কেৰটিন আৰু ফ্লেভেনইড নামৰ এন্টিঅক্সিডেন্ট থাকে যিবোৰে শৰীৰত মুক্ত মূলকৰ দ্বাৰা কোষ নষ্ট নোহোৱাকৈ ৰখাত সহায় কৰে। তাৰোপৰি ক্ৰণিক ৰোগ যেনে হৃদ আৰু কৰ্কট ৰোগৰ প্ৰতি থকা ভাবুকি পৰাও ৰক্ষা কৰে। 

তাৰোপৰি আমত পটাচিয়াম, মেগনেছিয়াম আৰু ভিটামিন "কে" থাকে যিবোৰে হৃদযন্ত্ৰ সুস্থ কৰি ৰখাৰ লগতে হাড় মজবুত কৰি ৰাখে।

গতিকে আমৰ উপকাৰিতা কথা কৈ থাকিলে শেষ নহয় বুলিয়েই ক'ব পাৰি। কিন্তু এই উপকাৰী ফলবিধ এতিয়া কিমান সুৰক্ষিত! বজাৰত ওলোৱা ডাঙৰ ডাঙৰ পকা আমবোৰ কিমান স্বাস্থ্য়কৰ!

বৰ্তমান বজাৰত ভৰি পৰা আমবোৰ অসমৰ বাহিৰৰ পৰা আহে। দোকানীক সুধিলে ক'ব - মালদা আম দাদা, খাই ভাল পাব। নিশ্চয় খাবলৈ ভাল। কিন্তু আপুনি ভাৱকচোন আপোনাৰ বাৰীত বা আপুনি দেখা কেইটা আম পোক নলগাকৈ থাকে! প্ৰতি দহটাৰ ভিতৰত ৭ টাই পোক লগা হয়। তেন্তে বাহিৰৰ পৰা অহা আমবোৰ কেনেকৈ ইমান মসৃণ হয়, ভিতৰত পোক এটাও নাথাকে। এই উত্তৰ আপুনি নিশ্চয় জানেই! 

আমত যথেষ্ট খাদ্যপ্ৰাণ থকাৰ বাবে ই কেৱল মানুহৰে নহয় অনেক পোক-প্ৰত্যংগৰ প্ৰিয় ফল। সেইবাবে মানুহৰ হাতলৈ আহিবলৈ হ'লে অন্য খাদকবোৰক খেদিব লাগিব। কেনেকৈ? কীটনাশংক (pesticide) দি।  যিবোৰ  কীটনাশংক পোকৰ বাবে ভয়ংকৰ সেইবোৰ মানুহৰ বাবেও ভয়ংকৰ হ'ব। আকৌ আম নাখালেও মনে নেমানে। খাব লাগিবই নিশ্চয়। তেন্তে তলৰ কামকেইটা খোৱাৰ আগতে কৰক।

১) বজাৰৰ পৰা অনা আম খোৱাৰ আগতে পৰিষ্কাৰ পানীত অতিকমেও বিশ মিনিটমান সময় ডুবাই ৰাখক। এনে কৰিলে আমত প্ৰয়োগ কৰা কীটনাশকবোৰ পানীত দ্ৰবীভূত হৈ আমৰ ভিতৰৰ পৰা ওলাই যাব। 

২) আমত ফাইটিক এচিড নামৰ ৰাসায়নিক পৰ্দাথ এবিধ থাকে। এই পৰ্দাথবিধে আমত থকা পুষ্টি যেনে জিংক, আইৰণ আৰু এন্টিঅক্সিডেন্ট দেহে শোষণ কৰাত বাধা দিয়ে ফলত আম খালেও আমাৰ দেহে এই দৰকাৰী পুষ্টি কেইবোধ নোপোৱাকৈ থাকে। যদি কিছু সময় পানীত ডুবাই ৰখা হয় এই এচিড পানীত মিলি নোহোৱা হয়।

৩) আমৰ বাহিৰৰ বাকলিত কিছুমান সক্ৰিয় যৌগ থকাৰ বাবে আমাৰ বাবে উপকাৰী পুষ্টিবোৰৰ সৈতে ক্ৰিয়া-বিক্ৰীয়া কৰি অপকাৰী যৌগ গঠন কৰে যাৰ ফলত কৌষ্ঠ-কানিষ্ঠ্য, মূৰ-কামুৰণি আদি ৰোগ হ'ব পাৰে। কিন্তু কিছু সময় পানীত তিয়াই থ'লে এই যৌগবোৰ আতৰি যায় আৰু খালে উপকাৰিতা বাঢ়ি যায়।

৪) দূৰ-দুৰণিৰ পৰা আমদানিকৃত আমবোৰ তজবজীয়া ৰূপত আমাৰ ঠাইত পাবলৈ কিছু সময় লাগে। এই সময়খিনিত সাধাৰণতে আম পচি নষ্ট হোৱাৰ সম্ভাৱনা বেছি। কিন্তু ৰাসায়নিকযুক্ত সংৰক্ষক (Preservative) প্ৰয়োগ কৰি বহুদিনলৈ ভালে থাকিব পৰা কৰি ৰাখে। এই ৰাসায়নিক পৰ্দাথবোৰ ক্ষতিকাৰক। কৰ্কট ৰোগৰ দৰে ভয়াৱহ ৰোগো সৃষ্টি কৰাত অৰিহনা যোগায় বুলি প্ৰমাণিত হৈছে। গতিকে এনে ৰাসানিক পৰ্দাথবোৰক আতৰাবলৈ পানীত ডুবাই ৰখাৰ বাহিৰে অন্য ৰাস্তা নাই।

 আম খাওক স্বাস্থ্যসন্মত বিধিৰে, শৰীৰ সবল কৰক  ঋতুৰ ফলেৰে।

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