India's enemy Pakistan is under big trouble

We Feel Ashamed Begging for Money”: Pakistan PM’s Rare Admission

In an unusually candid statement, Pakistan’s Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif has admitted that he, along with the country’s Army Chief Field Marshal Asim Munir, has been forced to travel abroad seeking financial assistance from other nations.

Speaking at a gathering of leading Pakistani exporters in Islamabad on Friday night, Sharif opened up about the difficult economic choices his government has had to make amid the country’s continuing financial crisis.

He noted that Pakistan’s foreign exchange reserves have shown some improvement in recent months.

“The current situation is that our foreign reserves have almost doubled,” Sharif said.

However, he quickly added that this rise is largely because of loans and financial support received from “friendly countries.”

Sharif did not hide the emotional and political cost of relying on borrowed money. In a deeply personal remark, he described the humiliation that comes with repeatedly approaching other nations for help.

“We feel ashamed when Field Marshal Asim Munir and I go around the world begging for money,” he said.
“Taking loans is a huge burden on our self-respect. Our heads bow down in shame.”

The Prime Minister further explained that borrowing money often comes with strings attached, leaving Pakistan in a position where it cannot always refuse the demands of those providing assistance.

“We cannot say no to many things they want us to do,” Sharif admitted.

This rare confession highlights the growing pressure Pakistan faces as it struggles to stabilize its economy while remaining dependent on foreign loans and aid.

40 MCQs with Answers for Biology students

1. Evolution means

A. Sudden change
B. Gradual change over time
C. Instant mutation
D. None

✅ Answer: B

2. Father of Evolution is

A. Lamarck
B. Darwin
C. Mendel
D. Wallace

✅ Answer: B

3. Darwin proposed the theory of

A. Mutation
B. Natural selection
C. Use and disuse
D. Genetic drift

✅ Answer: B

4. Lamarck proposed evolution through

A. Survival of the fittest
B. Natural selection
C. Use and disuse of organs
D. Gene mutation

✅ Answer: C

5. Book written by Darwin is

A. Origin of Life
B. Origin of Species
C. Theory of Mutation
D. Evolutionary Genetics

✅ Answer: B

6. Term “Survival of the fittest” was given by

A. Darwin
B. Lamarck
C. Herbert Spencer
D. Mendel

✅ Answer: C

7. Natural selection operates on

A. Genotype
B. Phenotype
C. Cell organelles
D. DNA only

✅ Answer: B

8. Variation is essential for

A. Photosynthesis
B. Evolution
C. Respiration
D. Digestion

✅ Answer: B

9. Evolution is mainly driven by

A. Mutation
B. Variation and selection
C. Reproduction
D. Growth

✅ Answer: B

10. Industrial melanism was observed in

A. Sparrows
B. Peppered moth
C. Frogs
D. Humans

✅ Answer: B

11. Peppered moth example supports

A. Lamarckism
B. Mutation theory
C. Natural selection
D. Genetic drift

✅ Answer: C

12. Connecting link between reptiles and birds is

A. Archaeopteryx
B. Crocodile
C. Lizard
D. Turtle

✅ Answer: A

13. Homologous organs indicate

A. Convergent evolution
B. Common ancestry
C. Analogous nature
D. Mutation

✅ Answer: B

14. Analogous organs indicate

A. Divergent evolution
B. Common origin
C. Convergent evolution
D. Fossil evidence

✅ Answer: C

15. Wings of bat and wings of butterfly are

A. Homologous
B. Analogous
C. Vestigial
D. None

✅ Answer: B

16. Forelimbs of whale and human are

A. Analogous
B. Homologous
C. Vestigial
D. None

✅ Answer: B

17. Vestigial organ in humans is

A. Heart
B. Appendix
C. Liver
D. Kidney

✅ Answer: B

18. Fossils provide evidence for

A. Cell division
B. Evolution
C. Respiration
D. Digestion

✅ Answer: B

19. Study of fossils is called

A. Taxonomy
B. Palaeontology
C. Ecology
D. Embryology

✅ Answer: B

20. The age of fossils is determined by

A. PCR
B. Carbon dating
C. Hybridisation
D. Cloning

✅ Answer: B

21. Mutation theory was proposed by

A. Darwin
B. De Vries
C. Lamarck
D. Mendel

✅ Answer: B

22. Genetic drift is also known as

A. Adaptive radiation
B. Sewall Wright effect
C. Hardy Weinberg law
D. Mutation pressure

✅ Answer: B

23. Example of genetic drift is

A. Industrial melanism
B. Founder effect
C. Fossil record
D. Natural selection

✅ Answer: B

24. Founder effect occurs due to

A. Small population
B. Large gene pool
C. Fossils
D. Mutation

✅ Answer: A

25. Hardy-Weinberg principle relates to

A. Gene frequency
B. Mutation only
C. Fossils
D. Embryology

✅ Answer: A

26. Gene frequency remains constant when

A. No evolution occurs
B. Mutation is high
C. Migration occurs
D. Selection occurs

✅ Answer: A

27. Adaptive radiation is evolution of

A. One species into many forms
B. Many species into one
C. Fossils only
D. Analogous organs

✅ Answer: A

28. Darwin’s finches show

A. Mutation
B. Adaptive radiation
C. Genetic drift
D. Vestigial organs

✅ Answer: B

29. Human evolution started in

A. Europe
B. Africa
C. America
D. Australia

✅ Answer: B

30. Modern humans are called

A. Homo erectus
B. Homo habilis
C. Homo sapiens sapiens
D. Australopithecus

✅ Answer: C

31. Neanderthal man belongs to

A. Homo sapiens
B. Homo erectus
C. Homo neanderthalensis
D. Australopithecus

✅ Answer: C

32. First tool maker was

A. Homo erectus
B. Homo habilis
C. Homo sapiens
D. Australopithecus

✅ Answer: B

33. Missing link between ape and man is

A. Cro-Magnon
B. Archaeopteryx
C. Australopithecus
D. Gorilla

✅ Answer: C

34. Evolution of giraffe neck is explained by

A. Darwin
B. Lamarck
C. De Vries
D. Wright

✅ Answer: B

35. Main source of variation is

A. Mutation
B. Digestion
C. Excretion
D. Transport

✅ Answer: A

36. Reproductive isolation leads to

A. Speciation
B. Fossils
C. Respiration
D. Adaptation loss

✅ Answer: A

37. Speciation means

A. Formation of new species
B. Formation of organs
C. Formation of cells
D. Formation of DNA

✅ Answer: A

38. Evolution occurs at level of

A. Individual
B. Population
C. Organ
D. Tissue

✅ Answer: B

39. Convergent evolution results in

A. Homologous organs
B. Analogous organs
C. Vestigial organs
D. Fossils

✅ Answer: B

40. Divergent evolution results in

A. Analogous organs
B. Homologous organs
C. Mutation only
D. Genetic drift only

✅ Answer: B

চীনৰ বাণিজ্যিই সদায় পৃথিৱীৰ শীৰ্ষত

চীনৰ বাণিজ্য ৰাহি ২০২৫ত ইতিহাসৰ সৰ্বোচ্চ স্তৰত

২০২৫ চনত চীনৰ বাণিজ্য ৰাহি (trade surplus) ১.১৯ ট্ৰিলিয়ন ডলাৰলৈ বৃদ্ধি পাই নতুন ৰেকৰ্ড স্থাপন কৰিছে। বহুতে আশা কৰিছিল যে নতুনকৈ শুল্ক বৃদ্ধিৰ ভাবুকি আৰু আমেৰিকাৰ সৈতে বাণিজ্য উত্তেজনা বৃদ্ধি পোৱাৰ ফলত চীনৰ বৈদেশিক বাণিজ্য শক্তি হ্ৰাস পাব। কিন্তু বাস্তৱত চীনৰ উদ্বৃত্ত উল্লেখযোগ্যভাৱে কমা নাছিল।

আমেৰিকাৰ চাপ বৃদ্ধি আৰু চীনৰ ৰপ্তানি নিৰ্ভৰ বিকাশ মডেলৰ ওপৰত অধিক পৰ্যবেক্ষণ চলি থকাৰ পিছতো, চীনৰ ৰপ্তানি যথেষ্ট দৃঢ়ভাৱে আগবাঢ়ি থাকিল। ফলস্বৰূপে উদ্বৃত্ত ঐতিহাসিক উচ্চতাত উপনীত হয়।

বিশ্বৰ উন্নত অৰ্থনীতিসমূহত বিকাশ ধীৰ গতিৰে আগবঢ়া, বাণিজ্য সম্পৰ্কিত অনিশ্চয়তা আৰু নতুনকৈ সুৰক্ষাবাদী (protectionist) নীতিৰ পুনৰ আগমন সত্ত্বেও চীনৰ বাণিজ্য অত্যন্ত জটিল পৰিৱেশত চলি থাকিল। এই পৰিপ্ৰেক্ষিতত, চীনৰ বৃহৎ উৎপাদন ক্ষমতা, মূল্য প্ৰতিযোগিতামূলক সুবিধা আৰু আঞ্চলিক যোগান শৃংখলাত গভীৰ সংযুক্তি চীনৰ ৰপ্তানি প্ৰদৰ্শন সমৰ্থন কৰি আহিছে।

প্ৰাৰম্ভিক কাষ্টমস তথ্য অনুসৰি ২০২৫ চনত চীনৰ সৰ্বাধিক বাণিজ্য উদ্বৃত্ত থকা অংশীদাৰ দেশসমূহ দেখুওৱা হৈছে, য’ত ৰপ্তানি আমদানিতকৈ সৰ্বাধিক অধিক আছিল।

তথ্যৰ মূল বিষয়সমূহ

• হং কং আৰু আমেৰিকা চীনৰ সৰ্বাধিক বাণিজ্য উদ্বৃত্ত অংশীদাৰ। ইয়াৰ পৰা বুজা যায় যে পুনৰ-ৰপ্তানি কেন্দ্ৰ (re-export hubs) আৰু শুল্ক ভাবুকিৰ মাজতো বৃহৎ গ্ৰাহক বজাৰে চীনৰ ৰপ্তানি বহল পৰিমাণে টিকাই ৰাখিছে।

• ভাৰতকে ধৰি বহু এছীয় দেশ এই তালিকাত উল্লেখযোগ্য। ই আঞ্চলিক বাণিজ্য আৰু যোগান শৃংখলা সংযুক্তিৰ গুৰুত্ব বৃদ্ধি পোৱা প্ৰমাণ কৰে।

• ইউৰোপীয় অংশীদাৰ দেশসমূহে একক ডাঙৰ বজাৰৰ পৰিৱৰ্তে বহুতো মধ্যম আকাৰৰ উদ্বৃত্ত যোগদান কৰিছে।

• আগন্তুক সময়ত, বিশেষকৈ আমেৰিকাই অধিক কঠোৰ বাণিজ্য নীতি গ্ৰহণ কৰাৰ সংকেত দিয়াৰ পৰিপ্ৰেক্ষিতত, উচ্চ শুল্ক বৃদ্ধিৰ ভাবুকিৰ মাজতো চীনৰ এই ৰেকৰ্ড উদ্বৃত্ত তিষ্ঠি থাকিব নে নাই, সেয়া লক্ষ্যণীয় হ’ব।

টোকা

মূল্যসমূহ আমেৰিকান ডলাৰ (US$ bn) হিচাপে দিয়া হৈছে। ২০২৫ৰ তথ্যসমূহ প্ৰাথমিক। হং কংৰ সংখ্যাসমূহ মূলত পুনৰ-ৰপ্তানি আৰু পৰিবহন বাণিজ্য প্ৰতিফলিত কৰে।

উৎস: চীনৰ কাষ্টমস সাধাৰণ প্ৰশাসন (ডিচেম্বৰ প্ৰকাশন)।
ডাটা লিংক: http://english.customs.gov.cn/Statics/3a0a3d5b-7a93-4be7-876a-e0f3b79b4e8c.html

ডাটাছেট (২০২৫ চীনৰ সৰ্বাধিক উদ্বৃত্ত অংশীদাৰ দেশসমূহ)

দেশ	উদ্বৃত্ত (US$ bn)
হং কং	303.93
আমেৰিকা	280.35
ভাৰত	116.12
ভিয়েটনাম	100.15
নেদাৰলেণ্ডচ	73.39
যুক্তৰাজ্য (UK)	66.44
থাইলেণ্ড	53.75
ছিংগাপুৰ	46.08
ফিলিপাইনচ	38.87
ইতালি	26.31
জাৰ্মানি	25.42
মালয়েছিয়া	15.69
ফ্ৰান্স	11.63
কানাডা	6.21
ইণ্ডোনেছিয়া	3.16

ডাটা উৎসৰ বিৱৰণ

তথ্যসমূহ চীনৰ কাষ্টমস সাধাৰণ প্ৰশাসনৰ পৰা সংগ্ৰহ কৰা হৈছে। “China’s Total Export & Import Values by Country/Region, Dec 2025 (in USD)” নামৰ চৰকাৰী Excel প্ৰকাশনৰ আধাৰত এই সংখ্যাসমূহ প্ৰস্তুত কৰা হৈছে। বাণিজ্য উদ্বৃত্ত গণনা কৰা হৈছে—
ৰপ্তানি − আমদানি = উদ্বৃত্ত

ভাৰতে EU সৈতে কৰা কূটনৈতিক বাণিজ্যিক চুক্তিত পাকিস্তান কম্পমান

ভাৰত–EU বাণিজ্য চুক্তিৰ বাবে পাকিস্তান চিন্তিত

ভাৰত আৰু ইউৰোপীয় ইউনিয়নে (EU) সদ্য এখন নতুন মুক্ত বাণিজ্য চুক্তি স্বাক্ষৰ কৰিছে। এই চুক্তিৰ জৰিয়তে ভাৰতীয় ৰপ্তানিকাৰীসকলে ইউৰোপৰ দেশসমূহত নিজৰ পণ্য শুল্ক নেদিয়াকৈ বিক্ৰী কৰিব পাৰিব।

এই নতুন সুবিধাৰ বাবে পাকিস্তান চিন্তিত হৈছে, কাৰণ পাকিস্তানৰ ইউৰোপৰ সৈতে বাণিজ্যত আগতে বিশেষ সুবিধা আছিল।

পাকিস্তান বহুদিন ধৰি EU ৰ GSP+ নামৰ আঁচনিৰ অধীনত ইউৰোপলৈ সস্তাত পণ্য ৰপ্তানি কৰিব পাৰিছিল। বিশেষকৈ পাকিস্তানৰ কাপোৰ আৰু বস্ত্ৰ শিল্পে ইয়াৰ পৰা বহুত লাভ পাইছিল।

কিন্তু এতিয়া ভাৰতেও যদি ইউৰোপত শুল্ক-মুক্ত সুবিধা পায়, তেন্তে পাকিস্তানৰ আগৰ বিশেষ লাভ কমি যাব বুলি পাকিস্তানৰ ৰপ্তানিকাৰীসকলে ভয় প্ৰকাশ কৰিছে।

পাকিস্তানৰ বিদেশ মন্ত্ৰালয়ৰ মুখপাত্ৰ তাহিৰ আন্দ্ৰাবিয়ে কয় যে পাকিস্তান এই চুক্তিৰ বিষয়ত অৱগত আৰু ইউৰোপীয় ইউনিয়নৰ সৈতে ভাল সম্পৰ্ক বজাই ৰাখিবলৈ আগ্ৰহী।

তেওঁ জনায় যে পাকিস্তান আৰু EU ৰ মাজত প্ৰায় ১২ বিলিয়ন ইউৰোৰ বাণিজ্য হয়।

বিশেষজ্ঞসকলৰ মতে, ভাৰতৰ এই নতুন চুক্তিয়ে দক্ষিণ এছিয়াৰ বাণিজ্য ক্ষেত্ৰত নতুন প্ৰতিযোগিতা সৃষ্টি কৰিব পাৰে।

এটা চুক্তি, তিনিটা ধাক্কা

এটা চুক্তি, তিনিটা ধাক্কা: ভাৰত-ইউৰোপীয় ইউনিয়ন বাণিজ্য চুক্তিয়ে কেনেদৰে তুৰ্কী, পাকিস্তান আৰু বাংলাদেশক চাপত পেলালে- চাওক সবিশেষ সংক্ষেপে---

ভাৰত আৰু ইউৰোপীয় ইউনিয়ন (EU)-ৰ মাজত হোৱা বাণিজ্য চুক্তিয়ে কেৱল সীমান্তৱৰ্তী দেশসমূহত নহয়, আমেৰিকা যুক্তৰাষ্ট্ৰতো প্ৰতিক্ৰিয়া সৃষ্টি কৰিছে। এই ঐতিহাসিক বাণিজ্য চুক্তিৰ প্ৰভাৱ কেৱল বাংলাদেশ আৰু পাকিস্তানৰ ওপৰতে নহয়, আমেৰিকা আৰু তুৰ্কীয়েও অনুভৱ কৰিব লাগিব।

এই চুক্তিৰ অধীনত, EU-ৰ পৰা ভাৰতলৈ ৰপ্তানি কৰা সামগ্ৰীৰ ৯০ শতাংশতকৈ অধিক অংশৰ ওপৰত থকা শুল্ক সম্পূৰ্ণৰূপে উঠাই দিয়া হ’ব বা কমাই দিয়া হ’ব । ইয়াৰ ভিতৰত যন্ত্ৰপাতিৰ ওপৰত ৪৪ শতাংশলৈকে, ৰাসায়নিক সামগ্ৰীৰ ওপৰত ২২ শতাংশ, আৰু ঔষধসমূহৰ ওপৰত ১১ শতাংশলৈকে থকা উচ্চ শুল্কসমূহো অন্তর্ভুক্ত আছে । এই শুল্কসমূহ ধাপে ধাপে অধিকাংশই উঠাই দিয়া হ’ব ।

ইউৰোপীয় ইউনিয়নে অনুমান কৰিছে যে এই চুক্তিৰ ফলত ২০৩২ চনৰ ভিতৰত ভাৰতলৈ EU-ৰ ৰপ্তানি দুগুণলৈ বৃদ্ধি পাব আৰু ইউৰোপীয় সামগ্ৰীৰ ওপৰত বছৰি প্ৰায় ৪ বিলিয়ন ইউৰো পৰ্যন্ত শুল্ক সঞ্চয় হ’ব । লগতে ইয়াৰ ফলত ভাৰতৰ শত্রু দেশসমূহ ক্ষতিগ্ৰস্ত হ’ব ।

Most Appropriate Time to Wake Up

Best Time: Between 5:00 AM – 7:00 AM

This is considered the most ideal and natural waking time for most people.

Why Morning Waking is Best

1. Matches the Body’s Biological Clock

Our body follows a circadian rhythm (internal clock) that works best with sunlight.

2. Better Energy and Focus

Waking up early improves concentration, productivity, and mental freshness.

3. Healthier Hormone Balance

Morning sunlight helps regulate hormones like:

• Melatonin (sleep hormone)
• Cortisol (energy hormone)

4. More Time for Exercise and Calm Start

Early hours are perfect for:

• Walking
• Yoga
• Meditation
• Study or planning

Recommended Wake-Up Time by Lifestyle

Person Type	Ideal Wake-Up Time
Students	5:30 – 6:30 AM
Working Adults	6:00 – 7:00 AM
Elderly People	5:00 – 6:00 AM
Night Shift Workers	Depends on shift sleep cycle

Most Important Rule: Sleep Duration Matters

Waking up early is only healthy if you sleep enough.

Recommended Sleep:

• Adults: 7–8 hours
• Teenagers: 8–10 hours
• Children: 9–12 hours

So, if you want to wake up at 6:00 AM, you should sleep by 10:00–10:30 PM.

Best Practical Suggestion

✅ Wake up at the same time every day, even on weekends.
Consistency is more important than exact time.

Save Wetlands, Save Nature

1. Introduction

Wetlands are among the most valuable ecosystems on Earth. They include marshes, swamps, lakes, ponds, riversides, mangroves, and floodplains. Wetlands play an important role in maintaining ecological balance and supporting biodiversity. The theme “Save Wetlands, Save Nature” highlights the urgent need to conserve wetlands for the survival of plants, animals, and human beings.

Wetlands are often called the “kidneys of the Earth” because they filter pollutants, improve water quality, and recharge groundwater. However, due to human activities such as pollution, encroachment, and climate change, wetlands are rapidly disappearing. Protecting wetlands is therefore essential for saving nature and ensuring sustainable development.

2. Rationale / Need of the Theme

Wetlands provide numerous benefits to the environment and society:

• They act as natural water reservoirs.
• They reduce floods by absorbing excess rainfall.
• They support rich biodiversity including birds, fishes, amphibians, and aquatic plants.
• They provide livelihood opportunities through fishing, agriculture, and eco-tourism.
• They help in carbon storage and climate regulation.

Despite their importance, wetlands face serious threats like land conversion, industrial waste discharge, and uncontrolled urbanization. Immediate awareness and conservation actions are required.

3. Objectives

The main objectives of the concept “Save Wetlands, Save Nature” are:

1. To create awareness about the importance of wetlands in environmental sustainability.
2. To encourage local communities and students to participate in wetland conservation.
3. To highlight the role of wetlands in biodiversity protection and climate change mitigation.
4. To promote sustainable use and restoration of degraded wetlands.
5. To inspire collective action towards safeguarding natural ecosystems.

4. Importance of Wetlands

Wetlands contribute significantly to nature in the following ways:

4.1 Biodiversity Hotspots

Wetlands provide habitat and breeding grounds for many species, including migratory birds and endangered animals.

4.2 Water Purification

They naturally filter pollutants, sediments, and harmful chemicals from water.

4.3 Flood Control

Wetlands absorb excess water during heavy rains, reducing flood risks.

4.4 Climate Regulation

Wetlands store large amounts of carbon and help reduce global warming impacts.

5. Major Threats to Wetlands

Some key threats include:

• Encroachment and land reclamation
• Pollution from industrial and domestic waste
• Overexploitation of resources
• Invasive species
• Climate change and drought

If wetlands are destroyed, it will lead to loss of biodiversity, increased floods, water scarcity, and imbalance in nature.

6. Proposed Activities for Awareness and Conservation

To strengthen wetland conservation, the following activities can be organized:

• Wetland cleanliness and plantation drives
• Awareness rallies and poster competitions
• Student seminars and workshops
• Community participation programs
• Wetland biodiversity surveys and eco-club initiatives

These activities will motivate people to understand and protect wetlands.

7. Conclusion

Wetlands are lifelines of nature and vital for ecological stability. The theme “Save Wetlands, Save Nature” reminds us that the protection of wetlands is directly linked with the protection of biodiversity, climate, and human well-being. Conservation of wetlands is not only an environmental responsibility but also a necessity for a sustainable future.

Saving wetlands means saving water, wildlife, and the natural heritage of our planet. Therefore, collective efforts must be made to protect and restore wetlands for the benefit of present and future generations.

Importance of Practical Work

Practical activities and laboratory classes are one of the most important parts of a student’s academic journey. Practical work is not just an additional task in the syllabus—it is the real foundation of learning. Through practical classes, students understand the true application of theoretical knowledge. Many concepts that seem difficult in books become clear when you perform them in the laboratory or during activity sessions.

Practical work develops your skills, confidence, and scientific attitude. It helps you learn by doing, observing, and experimenting. These activities improve your curiosity, creativity, and ability to solve problems. A student who regularly participates in practical classes gains deeper knowledge than someone who only studies theory.

Unfortunately, it is often seen that some students take practical work casually. They do not attend practical classes regularly, delay writing their records, or think that practical marks are not important. This careless attitude becomes a serious problem during examinations. Teachers cannot give full marks if the allotted practical work is incomplete. External examiners also refuse to award high marks when they see negligence and lack of sincerity.

Students must remember that practical marks play a major role in scoring a good percentage. Without strong performance in practical examinations, it becomes very difficult to score above 80%. Practical work reflects your punctuality, discipline, interest, and sincerity. It also shows your dedication towards learning.

A good student always gives equal importance to both theory and practical. They know that securing 29 out of 30 in practical is excellent and can greatly boost the overall result. Therefore, from the beginning of the academic session, every student should actively participate in practical activities, complete records on time, and learn seriously.

Practical work is not a burden—it is an opportunity to shine. So, stay focused, stay regular, and give your best in every practical class. Your efforts today will lead you to success tomorrow.

20 Most Probable Questions with Answers (HS Final 2026)

Sexual Reproduction in Flowering Plants

1. What is sexual reproduction in flowering plants?

Answer:
Sexual reproduction in flowering plants involves the formation of male and female gametes, their fusion (fertilization), and the formation of seeds and fruits.

2. Name the male and female reproductive organs of a flower.

Answer:

• Male reproductive organ: Androecium (Stamen)
• Female reproductive organ: Gynoecium (Carpel/Pistil)

3. What is anther? Mention its function.

Answer:
The anther is the terminal part of the stamen.
Function: It produces pollen grains which contain male gametes.

4. What is microsporogenesis?

Answer:
Microsporogenesis is the process by which microspore mother cells undergo meiosis to form haploid microspores (pollen grains).

5. What is a pollen grain?

Answer:
A pollen grain is the male gametophyte of flowering plants that carries male gametes.

6. Mention the structure of a mature pollen grain.

Answer:
A mature pollen grain has:

• Exine (outer thick wall)
• Intine (inner thin wall)
• A vegetative cell
• A generative cell

7. What is megasporogenesis?

Answer:
Megasporogenesis is the process by which the megaspore mother cell undergoes meiosis to form haploid megaspores inside the ovule.

8. How many megaspores are formed and how many remain functional?

Answer:
Four megaspores are formed, but only one remains functional.

9. Describe the structure of the embryo sac.

Answer:
The embryo sac is 7-celled and 8-nucleate, consisting of:

• 1 egg cell
• 2 synergids
• 3 antipodal cells
• 2 polar nuclei

10. What is pollination? Name its types.

Answer:
Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from anther to stigma.
Types:

• Self-pollination
• Cross-pollination

11. What is double fertilization?

Answer:
Double fertilization is the process where one male gamete fuses with the egg cell (syngamy) and the other fuses with polar nuclei (triple fusion).

12. Name the products of double fertilization.

Answer:

• Zygote
• Primary endosperm nucleus

13. What is endosperm? Mention its function.

Answer:
Endosperm is a nutritive tissue formed after fertilization.
Function: It provides nourishment to the developing embryo.

14. What is embryo?

Answer:
The embryo is the young sporophyte formed from the zygote after fertilization.

15. What changes occur after fertilization in a flower?

Answer:

• Ovule → Seed
• Ovary → Fruit
• Zygote → Embryo
• Ovary wall → Pericarp

16. What is apomixis?

Answer:
Apomixis is the formation of seeds without fertilization.

17. Mention one significance of sexual reproduction in plants.

Answer:
It produces genetic variation, which helps in evolution and adaptation.

18. What is pollen tube? State its function.

Answer:
The pollen tube is a tubular outgrowth of pollen grain.
Function: It carries male gametes to the embryo sac.

19. What is stigma?

Answer:
Stigma is the receptive part of the carpel where pollen grains germinate.

20. Why is cross-pollination beneficial?

Answer:
Cross-pollination increases genetic variation and produces healthier offspring.

Exam Tips for Students

✔ Focus on definitions + diagrams
✔ Remember key terms: 7-celled, 8-nucleate, double fertilization
✔ Practice 3–5 mark answers neatly

Present Status of Mushroom Cultivation, Consumption and Future Prospects in India (2025–2026)

1. Current Status of Mushroom Cultivation in India

Mushroom cultivation in India has transformed from a small-scale seasonal activity into an emerging agribusiness sector. It is gaining importance because mushrooms can be cultivated using agricultural waste materials and require comparatively less land.

Production Growth

India’s mushroom production has increased significantly in recent years. Recent estimates suggest India produced around 0.336 million tonnes (336,000 tonnes) during 2023–24, almost double compared to 2019–20.
A performance analysis reported mushroom production reaching 351,100 metric tonnes in 2023–24, showing steady growth.

Major Producing States

According to recent data from ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR), states like Bihar, Odisha, Punjab, Haryana, and Himachal Pradesh are major producers.
Bihar reported production above 41,000 tonnes, followed by Odisha (~32,000 tonnes).

Leading Mushroom Types Cultivated

India mainly cultivates:

• White button mushroom (~73%)
• Oyster mushroom (~16%)
• Paddy straw mushroom (~7%)
• Milky mushroom (~3%)

These shares were documented in ICAR publications.

2. Mushroom Consumption Pattern in India

Although production is rising, mushroom consumption in India remains low compared to developed countries.

Per Capita Consumption

Indian per capita mushroom consumption is still below 100 grams per year, which is considered very low.

Reasons for Low Consumption

• Limited awareness in rural areas.
•  Short shelf life and lack of cold chain
  
• Mushrooms not being part of traditional diets in many regions
• Recent market reports highlight post-harvest losses and infrastructure gaps.

3. Mushroom Market Status in India

The mushroom industry is expanding rapidly due to health awareness, vegan diets, and demand for protein-rich foods.

Market Size and Growth Forecast

India mushroom market size was estimated at USD 1.18 billion in 2023.

Expected growth rate: 

CAGR 12.7% from 2024–2030.
Another forecast projects the market reaching USD 2.58 billion by 2030.

4. Role of ICAR and Government Institutions

The ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research (DMR), Solan plays a key role in:

• Improved spawn production
• Farmer training programs
• Development of new high-yield varieties
• Promotion of entrepreneurship

Official institute information:

5. Future Prospects and Projects in India

Mushroom cultivation has strong future potential in India because it supports:
✅ Nutritional security
✅ Rural entrepreneurship
✅ Women self-employment
✅ Waste recycling and circular economy

Emerging Trends and Future Projects

-Expansion through Training & KVK Programs. ICAR-KVKs are introducing new mushroom varieties (milky, oyster, seasonal) in rural regions.

Example: Milky mushroom cultivation introduced in Arunachal Pradesh through ICAR-KVK training.

-Mushroom Summits and Start-ups
Urban demand and organized farming are increasing.
Bengaluru and other metro regions are witnessing new mushroom cultivation clusters and industry summits.
- Employment and Youth Entrepreneurship
Many progressive farmers have expanded into large commercial farms generating employment.
Example: National Mushroom Producer Award winner in Punjab operating 15–20 mushroom sheds.
- Key Opportunities for the Future

India has huge scope for future development in:

Value-added products (mushroom powder, pickles, soups)
Cold storage and processing infrastructure
Export potential
Integrated farming models
Climate-smart agriculture
Scientific reviews emphasize India’s rapid transformation from traditional to modern mushroom production systems.

✅ Conclusion

Mushroom cultivation in India is presently in a growth phase, with increasing production and market value. However, consumption remains relatively low, and future expansion depends on awareness, cold-chain infrastructure, farmer training, and value addition.
With government support, ICAR research, and entrepreneurship opportunities, mushroom farming can become a major tool for employment generation and sustainable agriculture, especially in rural and North-East India.

References

1. ICAR-Directorate of Mushroom Research, Solan
2. Status of mushroom production in India (ICAR Journal, 2018)
3. India Mushroom Market Forecast Reports (2023–2030)
4. Production Statistics (2023–24 estimates)
5. Recent ICAR-KVK Projects and News Reports